Physics

PrincipleThis experiment provides training in determining the length and position of an object based on an X-ray image. A metal pin that is embedded in a wooden block is used as the model. This experiment is also an excellent preparatory exercise for demonstrating the principle of computed tomography. Benefits Simulation of a real-life situation in […]

PrincipleWhen a blood vessel model is irradiated with X-rays, the blood vessels themselves are not visible at first. It is only after the injection of a contrast medium that the blood vessels become visible. Tasks Inject a 50% potassium iodide solution into the blood vessel model. Observe the fluorescent screen of the X-ray basic unit […]

Principle An X-ray tube produces X-rays that cause a fluorescent screen to emit light. Objects that are located between the X-ray source and the fluorescent screen will be irradiated so that their inner structure becomes visible. If one varies the anode current and voltage, the change in intensity can be observed in a qualitative manner […]

Principle Moseley’s law describes the relationship between the energy of the Ka lines of characteristic X-ray spectra and the atomic number. In this experiment, the characteristic X-ray lines of various different anode materials are determined in order to verify Moseley’s law. Tasks Record the X-ray spectra of the three X-ray tubes. Determine the wavelengths and […]

Principle X-ray spectra are recorded as a function of the anode voltage. The short wavelength limit of the bremsspectrum is used to determine the agreement with the Duane-Hunt displacement law, and to determine Planck’s “quantum of action”. Tasks Record the intensity of the X-rays emitted by the copper anode at various anode voltages as a […]

PrincipleThe polychromatic iron X-ray spectrum is to analyzed by means of a monocrystal. The energy of the characteristic lines is to be determined from the positions of the glancing angles for various orders of diffraction. The separation of the Ka doublet in higher order diffraction is to be examined. Tasks Record the intensity of the […]

Principle The polychromatic molybdenum X-ray spectrum is analyzed by means of a monocrystal. The energy of the characteristic lines is determined from the positions of the glancing angles at various orders of diffraction. The separation of the K a doublet in higher order diffraction is examined. Tasks Record the intensity of the X-rays emitted by the molybdenum […]

Principle The X-rays that are generated by an X-ray tube are polychromatic. Numerous experiments (e.g. Debye-Scherrer experiments concerning crystal structures), however, require monochromatic X-radiation, which can be generated by filtering the X-rays with monocrystals or with the aid of metal foils. Tasks Record the intensity of the X-rays emitted by the copper anode as a […]

Principle The X-rays that are generated by an X-ray tube are polychromatic. Numerous experiments (e.g. Debye-Scherrer experiments concerning crystal structures), however, require monochromatic X-radiation, which can be generated by filtering the X-rays with monocrystals or with the aid of metal foils. Tasks Record the intensity of the X-rays emitted by the molybdenum anode as a […]

Principle The X-rays that are generated by an X-ray tube are polychromatic. Numerous experiments (e.g. Debye-Scherrer experiments concerning crystal structures), however, require monochromatic X-radiation, which can be generated by filtering the X-rays with monocrystals or with the aid of metal foils. Tasks Record the intensity of the X-rays emitted by the molybdenum anode as a […]

Principle The polychromatic X-radiation from a copper anode is analyzed using a LiF monocrystal according to Bragg. Varying the anode current and anode voltage influences the intensity of the characteristic K a and K b radiation. Tasks Record the intensity spectrum of polychromatic radiation from a X-ray tube with the help of a LiF monocrystal. Determine the intensities of the characteristic K a and K b radiations […]

Principle An X-ray tube with a tungsten anode generates X-radiation that is selected with the aid of a monocrystal as a function of the Bragg angle. A Geiger-Müller counter tube measures the intensity of the radiation. The glancing angles of the characteristic X-ray lines are then used to determine the energy. Tasks Record the intensity […]

Principle Spectra of X-rays from an iron anode are to be analyzed by means of different monocrystals and the results plotted graphically. The energies of the characteristic lines are then to be determined from the positions of the glancing angles for the various orders of diffraction Tasks Record the intensity of the X-rays emitted by the […]

Principle Spectra of X-rays from a molybdenum anode are to be analyzed by means of different monocrystals and the results plotted graphically. The energies of the characteristic lines are then to be determined from the positions of the glancing angles for the various orders of diffraction. Tasks Record the intensity of the X-rays emitted by the […]

Principle Spectra of X-rays from a copper anode are analyzed using different monocrystals and the results plotted graphically. The energies of the characteristic lines are then determined from the positions of the glancing angles for the various orders of diffraction. Tasks Record the intensity of the X-rays emitted by the copper anode as a function of the […]

PrincipleThe electric field distribution of light in a specific plane (object plane) is Fourier transformed into the 2 f configuration. Tasks Investigation of the Fourier transform by a convex lens for different diffraction objects in a 2 f setup. What you can learn about Fourier transform Lenses Fraunhofer diffraction Index of refraction Huygens’ principle  Scope […]

PrincipleWith the aid of two mirrors in a Michelson arrangement, light is brought to interference. Due to the magnetostrictive effect, one of the mirrors is shifted by variation in the magnetic field applied to a sample and the change in the interference pattern is observed. Benefits See that magnetic fields can change the geometry of […]

Principle With the aid of two mirrors in a Michelson arrangement, light is brought to interference. While moving one of the mirrors, the alterationin the interference pattern is observed and the wave length of the laser light determined. Benefits Learn about the measurement principle with which gravitational waves can be observed Assemble your own interferometer using invidual optical components […]

Principle A Mach-Zehnder-interferometer is illuminated with a laser beam. Circular interference fringes appear on the screens behind the interferometer. If polarisation filters with opposite polarisation planes are placed in the two interferometer paths the interference patterns disappear. Placing another polariser before one of the screens causes the pattern to reappear. Electromagnetic radiation can be described […]

Principle The wavelengths and the corresponding lengths of coherence of the green spectral lines of an extreme high pressure Hg vapour lamp are determined by means of a Michelson interferometer. Different double slit combinations are illuminated to verify the coherence conditions of non punctual light sources. An illuminated auxiliary adjustable slit acts as a non […]

Principle The beam of a laser diode is treated in a way that it can be coupled into a monomode fibre. The problems related to coupling the beam into the fibre are evaluated and verified. In consequence a low frequency signal is transmitted through the fibre. The numerical aperture of the fibre is recorded. The […]

Principle The rate equation model for an optically pumped four-level laser system is determined. As lasing medium, a Nd:YAG (Neodymium-Yttrium Aluminium Garnet) rod has been selected which is pumped by means of a semiconductor diode laser. The IR-power output of the Nd:YAG laser is measured as a function of the optical power input and the […]

Principle The difference between spontaneous and stimulated emission of light is demonstrated. The beam propagation within the resonator cavity of a He-Ne laser and its divergence are determined, its stability criterion is checked and the relative output power of the laser is measured as a function of the tube’s position inside the resonator and of […]

Principle In contrast to normal photography a hologram can store information about the three-dimensionality of an object. To capture the three-dimensionality of an object, the film stores not only the amplitude but also the phase of the light rays. To achieve this, a coherent light beam (laser light) is split into an object and a […]

Principle Two mirrors are assembled to form a Fabry-Perot interferometer. Using them, the multibeam interference ofa laser’s light beam is investigated.On moving one of the mirrors, thechange in the intensity distributionof the interfeence pattern is studied. This is a qualitative experiment,to study the shape of different lasermodes and compare it with some photosgiven in this […]

Principle Radioactivity is a subject in our society which has been playing an important role throughout politics, economy and media for many years now. The fact that this radiation cannot be seen or felt by the human being and that the effects of this radiation are still not fully explored yet, causes emotions like no […]

Principle Dosimetry, as a subspecialty of medical physics, deals with the determination and calculation of dose rates, which is also of great importance in view of the radiation protection directives. This experiment demonstrates the principle of measurement and it explains the various units of absorbed dose, equivalent dose, and absorbed dose rate. Inside a plate […]

Principle The counter tube uses the ionising effect of high-energy radiation in order to measure the intensity of the radiation. The counter tube characteristics describe its working range, i.e. the voltage range in which it reliably counts the incoming particles. Tasks Determine the counter tube characteristics of the type B counter tube that is used. […]

Principle The radiation of 137Cs and 22Na is measured with a scintillation detector and the energy spectrum determined with a multi channel analyzer. The fractions of the spectra caused by Compton scattering and those caused by the photoelectric effect are determined on the basis of their areas. The results are used for determining the ratio of the effective cross-sections and examining […]

Principle The radiation emitted during the decay of the 137Cs isotope is measured with a scintillation detector and the energyspectrum determined with a pulse height analyzer. The spectrum contains fractions due to a gamma-transition and fractions originating from a characteristic X-ray radiation. The areas of the fractions in question are determined and the conversion factor obtained from […]

Principle The intensity of gamma-radiation decreases when it passes through solid matter. The attenuation can be the result of Compton scattering, the photo effect or the pair production. An absorption coefficient can be attributed to each of the three phenomena. These absorption coefficients, as well as the total absorption, are highly energy-dependent. The energy dependence […]

Principle The inverse square law of distance is demonstrated with the gamma radiation from a 60-Co preparation, the half-value thickness and absorption coefficient of various materials determined with the narrow beam system and the corresponding mass attenuation coefficient calculated. Tasks To measure the impulse counting rate as a function of the distance between the source […]

Principle The radiation of β-unstable atomic nuclei is selected on the basis of its pulses in a magnetic transverse field, using a diaphragm system. The relationship between coil current and particle energy is determined for calibration of the spectrometer and the decay energy of the β-transition is obtained in each case from the β–-spectra. Tasks […]

Principle The attenuation of an electron particle stream passing through a material layer depends both on the thickness of the layer and on the mass coverage, resp. the “mass per unit area”. It will be shown that the particle flux consisting of electrons of a particular energy distribution decreases with the “mass per unit area”. […]

Principle A study is made of the connection between the energy E of alpha-particles and the path x travelled by them in air at standard pressure. The measurements recorded enable the differencial energy loss dE/dx to be calculated as a function of x. Tasks The spectrum of a covered 241Am source is measured at a fixed distance […]

Principle An alpha-spectrometer, consisting of a silicon surface barrier layer detector, a preamplifier, a pulse height analyser and a recording device for registration of the spectra is calibrated by means of an open alpha-emitter of known alpha-energy (241Am). The energy spectrum of a radium source which is in equilibrium with its decay products, is recorded […]

Principle The alpha-spectrum of an open 241Am-emitter is measured with a semiconductor a-detector. In connection with a multi channel analyzer the main parts of the spectrum are investigated. Tasks The spectrum of an uncovered 241Am-emitter is recorded with the multi channel analyzer. The energies of the two peaks preceding the principal peak are calculated. The principal peak, corresponding […]

Principle The relationship between the angle of scattering and the rate of scattering of alpha-particles by gold foil is examined with a semiconductor detector. This detector has a detection probability of 1 for alpha-particles and virtually no zero effect, so that the number of pulses agrees exactly with the number of alpha-particles striking the detector. […]

Principle An alpha-spectrometer, consisting of a photodetector, a preamplifier, a pulse height analyser and a recording device for registration of the spectra is calibrated by means of an open alpha-emitter of known alpha energy (241Am). The energy spectrum of a radium source which is in equilibrium with its decay products, is recorded and evaluated. The […]

Principle Radioactivity is a subject in our society which has been playing an important role throughout politics, economy and media for many years now. The fact that this radiation cannot be seen or felt by the human being and that the effects of this radiation are still not fully explored yet, causes emotions like no […]

Principle 1) The aim of this experiment is to show that the number of pulses counted during identical time intervals by a counter tube which bears a fixed distance to along-lived radiation emitter correspond to a Poisson´s distribution. A special characteristic of the Poisson´s distribution can be observed in the case of a small number […]

Principle The half-life of a Ba-137 m daughter substance eluted (washed) out of a Cs-137 isotope generator is measured directly and is also determined from the increase in activity after elution. Tasks To measure the activity of the isotope generator as a function of time immediately after elution. To measure the activity of a freshly […]

Principle Approaching a very sharp metal tip to an electrically conductive sample by applying a electrical field leads to a current between tip and sample without any mechanical contact. This so-called tunneling current is used to investigate the electronic topography on the sub nanometer scale of a fresh prepared graphite (HOPG) surface. By scanning the […]

Principle Approaching a sharp silicon tip mounted on a cantilever to a sample surface leads to an atomic scale interaction. The result is a bend of the cantilever which is detected by a laser. In static mode the resulting deflection is used to investigate the topography of the sample surface line by line using a […]

Prinzip Die Leitfähigkeit einer undotierten Germanium-Probe wird in Abhängigkeit von der Temperatur gemessen. Die Energielücke wird aus den gemessenen Werten bestimmt. Vorteile Die PHYWE Hall Effekt Unit kann auch für Messungen mit n- und p- dotiertem Germanium verwendet werden Einfacher Versuchsaufbau Auch für SEK II geeignet Aufgaben Der Strom und die Spannung werden in einer […]

Principle The resistivity and Hall voltage of 2  rectangular germanium samples ( n- and p-) are measured as a function of temperature and magnetic field. The band spacing, the specific conductivity, the type of charge carrier and the mobility of the charge carriers are determined from the measurements. Tasks The Hall voltage is measured at room temperature […]

Principle Approaching a very sharp metal tip to an electrically conductive sample by applying a electrical field leads to a current between tip and sample without any mechanical contact. This so-called tunneling current is used to investigate the electronic topography on the sub nanometer scale of a fresh prepared graphite (HOPG) surface. By scanning the […]

PrincipleWith the aid of two mirrors in a Michelson arrangement, light is brought to interference. Due to the magnetostrictive effect, one of the mirrors is shifted by variation in the magnetic field applied to a sample and the change in the interference pattern is observed. Benefits See that magnetic fields can change the geometry of […]

Principle A magnetic field is generated in a ring-shaped iron core by a continuous adjustable direct current applied to two coils. The field strength Η and the flux density B are measured and the hysteresis recorded. The remanence and the coercive field strength of two different iron cores can be compared. Benefits Simple experimental setup and intuitive handling of […]

PrincipleThe electric constant is determined by measuring the charge of a plate capacitor to which a voltage is applied. The dielectric constant is determined in the same way, with plastic or glass filling the space between the plates. Benefits Supplies non-hazardous high voltage Easy experimental set-up due to clear and compact design Clever investment: The […]

Principle Determine the current strength flowing through a semi-conducting diode. Determine the collector current with the collector voltage for various values of the base current intensity. Benefits Fast and easy experimenting Get to know the behaviour of several types of semiconductors Detailed experiment guide with extensive explanations and step-by-step instructions Measure voltage and current simultaneously […]

PrincipleThe current-voltage characteristic of a semiconducting diode is measured. The collector current in dependency on the emitter-collector voltage is measured for different values of base current strength through a NPN transistor. Benefits Fast and easy experimenting Get to know the behaviour of several types of semiconductors Simplified implementation: all pre-settings already prepared Data logging reveals instantaneous […]

Principle The current-voltage characteristics of a solar cell are measured at different light intensities, the distance between the light source and the solar cell being varied. The dependence of no-load voltage and short-circuit current on temperature is determined. Benefits Set-up allows quantitative measurement which also takes light intensity into account Set-up allows to avoid but […]

Principle The (cooling capacity) heating capacity and efficiency rating of a Peltier heat pump are determined under different operating conditions. Benefits Open design allows to fully understand function and applications Individual instruments for distinct functions (no “black box”) Key products of the experiment setup can also be used for investigating the Seebeck effect Tasks To determine the […]

Principle The rate equation model for an optically pumped four-level laser system is determined. As lasing medium, a Nd:YAG (Neodymium-Yttrium Aluminium Garnet) rod has been selected which is pumped by means of a semiconductor diode laser. The IR-power output of the Nd:YAG laser is measured as a function of the optical power input and the […]

Principle The relationship between torque and angle of rotation is determined when metal bars are twisted. The hysteresis curve is recorded. Benefits Beyond Hooke’s law Hysteresis – mostly known from the field of magnetism – can be experienced in mechanics Learn the meaning of the words stress, relaxation and equilibrium in a physics context Various […]

Principle A flat bar is supported at two points. It is bent by the action of a force acting at its centre. The modulus of elasticity is determined from the bending and the geometric data of the bar. Benefits Find out the parameters that give a bar stability Measure the difference of elasticity in various […]

Principle The velocity of sound in acrylics shall be determined by time of flight reflection technique with an ultrasonic echoscope. The measurements are done by reflection method, on three cylinders of different length. Two measurement series are carried out with ultrasonic probes of different frequencies. Benefits Introductory experiment for echoscopy applications Experiment can be easily […]

Principle X-ray spectra of an X-ray tube are measured in an energy dispersive manner with a semiconductor detector and with various anode voltages. Duane and Hunt’s  law of displacement is verified with the aid of the maximum energy of the bremsspectrum. Tasks Recording of the X-ray spectrum that is emitted by the copper anode for […]

Principle Polychromatic X-rays impinge on a monocrystal under various glancing angles. The rays are reflected by the lattice planes of the monocrystal. An energy detector is only used to measure those radiation parts that interfere constructively. The lattice constant of the crystal is determined with the aid of the various orders of diffraction and the […]

Principle Thin powder samples are subjected to polychromatic X-rays. The energy of the radiation that passes through the samples is analysed with the aid of a semiconductor detector and a multi-channel analyser. The energy of the corresponding absorption edges is determined and the resulting Moseley diagrams are used to determine the Rydberg frequency, the screening […]

PrincipleA cubic crystalline powder sample is irradiated with the radiation from a X-ray tube with a copper anode. A Geiger-Mueller counter tube is automatically swivelled to detect the radiation that is constructively reflected from the various lattice planes of the crystallites. The Bragg diagram is automatically recorded. A graphical evaluation procedure is used to assign […]

PrincipleA polycrystalline powder sample of lead dioxide is irradiated with the radiation from a X-ray tube with a copper anode. A Geiger-Mueller counter tube is automatically swivelled to detect the radiation that is constructively reflected from the various lattice planes of the crystallites. The Debye-Scherrer pattern is automatically recorded. The evaluation of the pattern not […]

Principle A polycrystalline powder sample of zinc is irradiated with the radiation from a X-ray tube with a copper anode. A Geiger-Mueller counter tube is automatically swivelled to detect the radiation that is constructively reflected from the various lattice planes of the crystallites. The Debye-Scherrer pattern is automatically recorded. The evaluation of the pattern not […]

PrinciplePolycrystalline powder samples, which crystallize in the three cubic Bravais types, simple, face-centered and body-centered, are irradiated with the radiation from a Roentgen tube with a copper anode. A swivelling Geiger-Mueller counter tube detects the radiation that is constructively reflected from the various lattice planes of the crystallites. The Bragg diagrams are automatically recorded. Their […]

Principle Polycrystalline powder samples, which crystallize in the three cubic Bravais types, simple, face-centered and body-centered, are irradiated with the radiation from a Roentgen tube with a copper anode. A swivelling Geiger-Mueller counter tube detects the radiation that is constructively reflected from the various lattice planes of the crystallites. The Bragg diagrams are automatically recorded. […]

Principle Laue diagrams are produced when monocrystals are irradiated with polychromatic X-rays. This method is primarily used for the determination of crystal symmetries and the orientation of crystals. When a LiF monocrystal is irradiated with polychromatic X-rays, a characteristic diffraction pattern results. This pattern is photographed with the digital X-ray sensor XRIS. Tasks The Laue […]

Principle A polycrystalline zirconium foil is irradiated with X-rays. The resulting Debye-Scherrer reflections are photographed and then evaluated. Tasks Take Debye-Scherrer photographs of the zirconium sample. Evaluate the Debye-Scherrer rings and assign them to the corresponding lattice planes. Determine the lattice constants of the sample material. Determine the number of atoms in a unit cell […]

Principle Laue diagrams are produced when monocrystals are irradiated with polychromatic X-rays. This method is primarily used for the determination of crystal symmetries and the orientation of crystals. When a LiF monocrystal is irradiated with polychromatic X-rays, a characteristic diffraction pattern results. This pattern is photographed and then evaluated. Tasks The Laue diffraction of an […]

Principle When polycrystalline samples are irradiated with X-rays a characteristic diffraction pattern results. These Debye-Scherrer reflections are photographed and then evaluated. Tasks Debye-Scherrer photographs are to be taken of powdered samples of sodium chloride and caesium chloride. The Debye-Scherrer rings are to be evaluated and assigned to the corresponding lattice planes. The lattice constants of […]

Principle The spectra of the X-rays that are reflected with various different orientations by NaCl monocrystals are analysed. The associated interplanar spacings are determined based on the Bragg angles of the characteristic lines. Tasks Determine the intensity of the X-rays that are reflected by the NaCl monocrystals with the orientations [100], [110] and [111] as […]

Principle The resistivity and Hall voltage of a rectangular germanium sample are measured as a function of temperature and magnetic field. The band spacing, the specific conductivity, the type of charge carrier and the mobility of the charge carriers are determined from the measurements. Tasks The Hall voltage is measured at room temperature and constant […]

Principle The Hall effect in thin zinc and copper foils is studied and the Hall coefficient determined. The effect of temperature on the Hall voltage is investigated. Tasks The Hall voltage is measured in thin copper and zinc foils. The Hall coefficient is determined from measurements of the current and the magnetic induction. The temperature […]

Principle The radiation of β-unstable atomic nuclei is selected on the basis of its pulses in a magnetic transverse field, using a diaphragm system. The relationship between coil current and particle energy is determined for calibration of the spectrometer and the decay energy of the β-transition is obtained in each case from the β–-spectra. Tasks […]

Principle In a semi-conductor thermogenerator, the no-load voltage and the short-circuit current are measured as a function of the temperature difference. The internal resistance, the Seebeck coefficient and the efficiency are determined. Benefits Open design allows to fully understand function and applications Individual instruments for distinct functions (no “black box”) Key products of the experiment […]

PrincipleElectron shells of metal atoms in the gas phase can be elevated to an excited state by light. If light is passed through the metal vapour, various lines will be absent from its spectrum afterwards. These lines correspond to the energy levels of those electrons in the metal vapour which have been excited by the […]

Principle The relationship between the angle of scattering and the rate of scattering of alpha-particles by gold foil is examined with a semiconductor detector. This detector has a detection probability of 1 for alpha-particles and virtually no zero effect, so that the number of pulses agrees exactly with the number of alpha-particles striking the detector. […]

Principle With electron spin resonance (ESR) spectroscopy compounds having unpaired electrons can be studied. The physical background of ESR is similar to that of nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR), but with this technique electron spins are excited instead of spins of atomic nuclei. The g-factor of a DPPH (Diphenylpikrylhydrazyl) specimen and the halfwidth of the absorption line […]

Principle A beam of potassium atoms generated in a hot furnace travels along a specific path in a magnetic two-wire field. Because of the magnetic moment of the potassium atoms, the non-homogeneity of the field applies a force at right angles to the direction of their motion. The potassium atoms are thereby deflected from their […]

Principle The difference between spontaneous and stimulated emission of light is demonstrated. The beam propagation within the resonator cavity of a He-Ne laser and its divergence are determined, its stability criterion is checked and the relative output power of the laser is measured as a function of the tube’s position inside the resonator and of […]

PrincipleThe polychromatic iron X-ray spectrum is to analyzed by means of a monocrystal. The energy of the characteristic lines is to be determined from the positions of the glancing angles for various orders of diffraction. The separation of the Ka doublet in higher order diffraction is to be examined. Tasks Record the intensity of the […]

Principle The polychromatic molybdenum X-ray spectrum is analyzed by means of a monocrystal. The energy of the characteristic lines is determined from the positions of the glancing angles at various orders of diffraction. The separation of the K a doublet in higher order diffraction is examined. Tasks Record the intensity of the X-rays emitted by the molybdenum […]

Principle An X-ray tube with a tungsten anode generates X-radiation that is selected with the aid of a monocrystal as a function of the Bragg angle. A Geiger-Müller counter tube measures the intensity of the radiation. The glancing angles of the characteristic X-ray lines are then used to determine the energy. Tasks Record the intensity […]

Principle Spectra of X-rays from an iron anode are to be analyzed by means of different monocrystals and the results plotted graphically. The energies of the characteristic lines are then to be determined from the positions of the glancing angles for the various orders of diffraction Tasks Record the intensity of the X-rays emitted by the […]

Principle Spectra of X-rays from a molybdenum anode are to be analyzed by means of different monocrystals and the results plotted graphically. The energies of the characteristic lines are then to be determined from the positions of the glancing angles for the various orders of diffraction. Tasks Record the intensity of the X-rays emitted by the […]

Principle Spectra of X-rays from a copper anode are analyzed using different monocrystals and the results plotted graphically. The energies of the characteristic lines are then determined from the positions of the glancing angles for the various orders of diffraction. Tasks Record the intensity of the X-rays emitted by the copper anode as a function of the […]

Principle Samples of various elements of different atomic numbers are irradiated with X-rays of a known spectral distribution. The energy of the transmitted intensities is analyzed using a monocrystal analyzer. Subsequently, the Rydberg constant and the screening constants are calculated from the energy of the absorption edges. Tasks Record the intensity of the X-rays emitted […]

Principle Moseley’s law describes the relationship between the energy of the Ka lines of characteristic X-ray spectra and the atomic number. In this experiment, the characteristic X-ray lines of various different anode materials are determined in order to verify Moseley’s law. Tasks Record the X-ray spectra of the three X-ray tubes. Determine the wavelengths and […]

Principle The irradiation of iodine, barium (sulfat), silver and tin with soft gamma-radiations gives rise to Ka radiations characteristics of these elements. The X-ray spectra are recorded with a gamma spectrometer consisting of a scintillation counter, a pulse height analyser and a recorder. After calibration of the spectrometer, the Rydberg constant is determined from the energies […]

Principle The spectral lines of He and Hg are examined by means of a diffraction grating. The wavelengths of the lines are determined from the geometrical arrangement and the diffraction grating constants. Tasks Determination of the wavelengths of the most intense spectral lines of He. Determination of the wavelengths of the most intense spectral lines […]

Principle The fundamental principles concerning the phenomenon of nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) are demonstrated. Experiments are executed with a MRT training device giving the opportunity to investigate some small probes in the sample chamber. Investigations comprise the tuning of the system frequency to the Larmor frequency, the determination of the flip angle of the magnetisation vector, the […]

Principle The “Zeeman effect” is the splitting up of the spectral lines of atoms within a magnetic field. The simplest is the splitting up of one spectral line into three components called the “normal Zeeman effect”. In this experiment the normal Zeeman effect as well as the anomalous Zeeman effect are studied using a cadmium […]

Principle The “Zeeman effect” is the splitting up of the spectral lines of atoms within a magnetic field. The simplest is the splitting up of one spectral line into three components called the “normal Zeeman effect”. In this experiment the normal Zeeman effect as well as the anomalous Zeeman effect are studied using a cadmium […]

PrincipleA photocell is illuminated with monochromatic light of different wavelengths from a filament lamp with interference filters. The maximum energy of the ejected electrons in the photo-cell depends only on the frequency of the incident light, and is independent of its intensity. The stopping voltage Uo at different light frequencies is determined by the U/I caracteristics of the […]

Principle The distribution of intensity in the Fraunhofer diffraction pattern of a slit is measured. The results are evaluated both from the wave pattern view point, by comparison with Kirchhoff’s diffraction formula, and from the quantum mechanics standpoint to confirm Heisenberg’s uncertainty principle. Benefits quantum mechanical versus wave theory viewpoints are discussed observing light transversing […]

Principle X-ray spectra are recorded as a function of the anode voltage. The short wavelength limit of the bremsspectrum is used to determine the agreement with the Duane-Hunt displacement law, and to determine Planck’s “quantum of action”. Tasks Record the intensity of the X-rays emitted by the copper anode at various anode voltages as a […]

PrincipleCompton scattering is to be achieved by directing an X-ray beam against a piece of plastic. The portions of the scattered X-rays at various angles is to be measured with a counter tube. Measurements are to be made with an absorber positioned in front of and behind the scatterer, so that the Compton wave length […]

Principle Photons of the molybdenum Kα X-ray line are scattered at the quasi-free electrons of an acrylic glass cuboid. The energy of the scattered photons is determined in an angle-dependent manner with the aid of a swivelling semiconductor detector and a multi-channel analyser. Tasks Energy calibration of the multi-channel analyser with the aid of the two […]

PrincipleWhen photons are scattered on electrons, their momentum and energy gets changed. The energy of scattered gamma-radiation is measured as a function of the angle of scatter. The Compton wavelength is determined from the measured values. Tasks Calibrate the measuring set-up with the aid of a Cs-137 calibrating source (37 kBq) and a Na-22 source […]

Principle Fast electrons are diffracted from a polycrystalline layer of graphite: interference rings appear on a fluorescent screen. The interplanar spacing in graphite is determined from the diameter of the rings and the accelerating voltage. Tasks To measure the diameter of the two smallest diffraction rings at different anode voltages. To calculate the wavelength of […]

Principle With electron spin resonance (ESR) spectroscopy compounds having unpaired electrons can be studied. The physical background of ESR is similar to that of nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR), but with this technique electron spins are excited instead of spins of atomic nuclei. The g-factor of a DPPH (Diphenylpikrylhydrazyl) specimen and the halfwidth of the absorption line […]

Principle The aim of these experiments is to show how the spin echo technique can be used to generate 2D MR images of a slice of a well-defined thickness, orientation, and size (Localized Spin Echo 2D). These parameters determine the so-called “field of view” (FOV) of the MR image. We will introduce a method that […]

Principle The basic principles of 2D MR imaging are demonstrated with two methods relying on two different gradient techniques. Experiments are executed with a MRT training device giving the opportunity to investigate some small probes in the sample chamber. Device control is done with the provided software. Investigations comprise the generation of a two-dimensional cross-section […]

Principle It should be demonstrated how spatial encoding does work in the MR technology. Experiments are executed with a MRT training device giving the opportunity ton investigate some small probes in the sample chamber. Device control is done with the provided software. Investigations comprise the generation of a 1D spatial encoding procedure via an additional […]

PrincipleThe principles of relaxation processes using the MR technology are demonstrated. Experiments are executed with the MRT training device giving the opportunity to investigate some small probes in the sample chamber. Device control is done with the provided software. Investigations comprise the estimation of the relaxation time T1 which is a measure of time for reestablishing […]

Principle A beam of potassium atoms generated in a hot furnace travels along a specific path in a magnetic two-wire field. Because of the magnetic moment of the potassium atoms, the non-homogeneity of the field applies a force at right angles to the direction of their motion. The potassium atoms are thereby deflected from their […]

Principle Electrons are accelerated in a tube filled with neon vapour. The excitation energy of neon is determined from the distance between the equidistant minima of the electron current in a variable opposing electric field. Tasks To record the counter current strength I in a Franck-Hertz tube as a function of the anode voltage U. To determine the […]

Principle Electrons are accelerated in a tube filled with mercury vapour. The excitation energy of mercury is determined from the distance between the equidistant minima of the electron current in a variable opposing electric field. Benefits Experience the essence of the Nobel Price: Franck, Hertz (1925) Classical Version with Mercury (Hg) One operating unit for […]

PrincipleElectrons are accelerated in an electric field and enter a magnetic field at right angles to the direction of motion. The specific charge of the electron is determined from the accelerating voltage, the magnetic field strength and the radius of the electron orbit. Tasks Determination of the specific charge of the electron (e/m0) from the […]

Principle Charged oil droplets subjected to an electric field and to gravity between the plates of a capacitor are accelerated by application of a voltage. The elementary charge is determined from the velocities in the direction of gravity and in the opposite direction. Tasks Measurement of the rise and fall times of oil droplets with […]

Principle A Mach-Zehnder-interferometer is illuminated with a laser beam. Circular interference fringes appear on the screens behind the interferometer. If polarisation filters with opposite polarisation planes are placed in the two interferometer paths the interference patterns disappear. Placing another polariser before one of the screens causes the pattern to reappear. Electromagnetic radiation can be described […]

PrincipleThe aim of this experiment is to study the behaviour of nickel, tungsten, and bismuth rods in a strong, inhomogeneous magnetic field. This field is formed, for example, between cone-shaped pole pieces that sit on a permanent magnet. The rods are suspended horizontally on a long and very thin silk thread so that they can […]

PrincipleOhmic resistances, inductances and capacitances are determined in a Wheatstone bridge circuit operated on AC. Balancing is done aurally through headphones, using the high sensitivity of the human ear. Benefits Quickly obtain experiment results using the Wheatstone bridge Easy to tune by aural measurement relying on the sensitivity of the human ear Save time while […]

PrincipleResistor-Capacitor (RC) circuits serve as filters for frequencies. The frequency response of the most commonly used RC filters is recorded by point-by-point measurements as well as the frequency sweep method, and displayed on the oscilloscope. The results are plotted and verified using the measure analysis software. Benefits Investigate several types of frequency filters High-resistance inputs […]

Principle A magnetic field of variable frequency and varying strength is produced in a long coil. The voltages induced across thin coils which are pushed into the long coil are determined as a function of frequency, number of turns, diameter and field strength. Benefits Huge field coil for homogenous magnetic field On-the-fly switching of the […]

Principle A constant magnetic field, its magnitude and direction known, is superimposed on the unknown earth magnetic field. The earth-magnetic field can then be calculated from the magnitude and direction of the resulting flux density. Benefits Particularly homogeneous magnetic field and high flux density due to large Helmholtz coil diameter Setup with precalibrated teslameter does […]

Principle The force acting on a current-carrying conductor loop in a uniform magnetic field (Lorentz force) is measured with a balance. Conductor loops of various sizes are suspended in turn from the balance, and the Lorentz force is determined as a function of the current and magnetic induction. The uniform magnetic field is generated by […]

PrincipleA small electrically charged ball is positioned at a certain distance in front of a metal plate lying at earth potential. The surface charge on the plate due to electrostatic induction together with the charged ball forms an electric field analogous to that which exists between two oppositely charged point charges. The electrostatic force acting […]

Principle If a double-slit is positioned in the divergent microwave beam, a characteristic intensity profile results behind this double-slit. The periodicity of the intensity profile can be used to determine the wavelength of the microwaves that are used. Benefits Convenient all-in-one set includes control unit, transmitter and receiver as horn antennae, microwave probe, microwave benches, […]

Principle The temperature dependence of an electrical parameter (e.g. resistance, conducting-state voltage, blocking voltage) of different components is determined. To do this, the immersion probe set is immersed in a water bath and the resistance is measured at regular temperature intervals. Benefits Onesetup to measure both electrical components and semiconducting diodes, as well as the […]

Principle In a PEM electrolyser, the electrolyte consists of a proton-conducting membrane and water (PEM = Proton-Exchange-Membrane). When an electric voltage is applied, hydrogen and oxygen are formed. The PEM fuel cell generates electrical energy from hydrogen and oxygen. The electrical properties of the electrolyser and the fuel cell are investigated by recording a current-voltage […]

Principle When electromagnetic waves encounter an obstacle, they are proportionately reflected, transmitted and absorbed. In this experiment, it is proved that the sum of the proportions is conserved. Benefits Convenient all-in-one set includes control unit, transmitter and receiver as horn antennae, microwave probe, microwave benches, grating, slit plates, prism, and reflection/absorption plates With the same […]

Principle When electromagnetic waves are bounced back and forth between two reflectors, a standing wave is formed. From the wavelength of the standing wave, the frequency of the waves can be determined. Benefits Convenient all-in-one set includes control unit, transmitter and receiver as horn antennae, microwave probe, microwave benches, grating, slit plates, prism, and reflection/absorption […]

Principle The intensity of a source of radiation, e.g. a microwave transmitter, at any given location depends on the distance of this location from the (approximately punctiform) source. Actually, due to its antenna geometry, a microwave transmitter can only be regarded as a punctiform source of radiation at long distances, which is why it is […]

Principle When electromagnetic waves encounter an obstacle, phenomena like reflection, transmission and refraction occur. In the present experiment these phenomena are verified and described by means of microwaves. Benefits Convenient all-in-one set includes control unit, transmitter and receiver as horn antennae, microwave probe, microwave benches, grating, slit plates, prism, and reflection/absorption plates With the same […]

Principle Electromagnetic waves impact on a grating whose permeability depends on the rotation plane of the wave. Benefits Convenient all-in-one set includes control unit, transmitter and receiver as horn antennae, microwave probe, microwave benches, grating, slit plates, prism, and reflection/absorption plates With the same set, all aspects of microwave physics can be studied quantitatively: polariziation, reflection, […]

PrincipleSeries circuits containing self-inductances or capacitances and ohmic resistances are investigated as a function of frequency. Measuring the electrical magnitudes with a work or power measurement instrument, real power or apparent power can be displayed directly. Benefits Quick set-up Investigate the influence of electrical components in an AC circuit. Directly measure the real or apparent […]

PrincipleThe ripple of the output voltage of various rectifier circuits is measured as a function of the load current strength and the charging capacitance. The characteristics of a voltage stabilizer and of a multiplier are investigated. Benefits Get to know several types of rectifier circuits Suitable for vocational classes Tasks Using the half-wave rectifier: To […]

Principle In an RLC circuit, energy is exchanged periodically between a capacitor and a coil. When the electric field of the capacitor decreases by discharge over the coil, a magnetic field is established in the coil. As soon as the capacitor is completely depleted, the current flow through the coil vanishes. The magnetic field decreases […]

Principle A capacitor is connected in a circuit with a variable-frequency voltage source. The impedance and phase displacement are determined as a function of frequency and of capacitance. Parallel and series impedances are measured. Benefits Intuitive, touch-optimized software that controls all devices simultaneously Simplified implementation: all pre-settings already prepared Easy frequency setting thanks to digital […]

PrincipleA square wave voltage of low frequency is applied to oscillatory circuits comprising coils and capacitors to produce free, damped oscillations. The values of inductance are calculated from the natural frequencies measured, the capacitance being known. Benefits Quick, easy, and neat set-up On-the-fly switching of the numerous induction coils for quick and easy experimenting Easy […]

Principle A permanent magnet drops through a coil with different velocities. The change in the magnetic flux generates an induced voltage pulse. It is shown that the total induced voltage during the entire fall is constant and therefore independent of the velocity. In respect to the magnet polarity, the induced voltage changes from plus to minus or vice versa. Benefits […]

Principle An alternating voltage is applied to one of two coils (primary coil) which are located on a common iron core. The voltage induced in the second coil (secondary coil) and the current flowing in it are investigated as functions of the number of turns in the coils and of the current flowing in the […]

Principle Charged oil droplets subjected to an electric field and to gravity between the plates of a capacitor are accelerated by application of a voltage. The elementary charge is determined from the velocities in the direction of gravity and in the opposite direction. Tasks Measurement of the rise and fall times of oil droplets with […]

PrincipleWith the aid of two mirrors in a Michelson arrangement, light is brought to interference. Due to the magnetostrictive effect, one of the mirrors is shifted by variation in the magnetic field applied to a sample and the change in the interference pattern is observed. Benefits See that magnetic fields can change the geometry of […]

Principle A magnetic field is generated in a ring-shaped iron core by a continuous adjustable direct current applied to two coils. The field strength Η and the flux density B are measured and the hysteresis recorded. The remanence and the coercive field strength of two different iron cores can be compared. Benefits Simple experimental setup and intuitive handling of […]

Principle A current which flows through one or two neighbouring straight conductors produces a magnetic field around them. The dependences of these magnetic fields on the distance from the conductor and on the current are determined. Benefits Four different current conductors allow the observation of the magnetic field in different configurations Experimental setup allows the […]

PrincipleA current is passed through an electrolyte producing a magnetic field. This magnetic field inside the conductor is measured as function of position and current by determining the induction voltage. Benefits Measure the magnetic field inside of liquid electrolytes Large unique hollow cylinder with conductive wire mesh prevents the influence of disturbing fields Easy frequency […]

Principle A conductor loop carrying a current in an uniform magnetic field experiences a torque. This is determined as a function of the radius, of the number of turns and the current in the conductor loop and of the strength of the external field. Benefits Particularly homogeneous magnetic field and high flux density due to […]

Principle The spatial distribution of the field strength between a pair of coils in the Helmholtz arrangement is measured. The spacing at which a uniform magnetic field is produced is investigated and the superposition of the two individual fields to form the combined field of the pair of coils is demonstrated. Benefits Particularly homogeneous magnetic […]

Principle The magnetic field along the axis of wire loops and coils of different dimensions is measured with a teslameter (Hall probe). The relationship between the maximum field strength and the dimensions is investigated and a comparison is made between the measured and the theoretical effects of position. Benefits Simple setup which allows an easy […]

Principle In a semi-conductor thermogenerator, the no-load voltage and the short-circuit current are measured as a function of the temperature difference. The internal resistance, the Seebeck coefficient and the efficiency are determined. Benefits Open design allows to fully understand function and applications Individual instruments for distinct functions (no “black box”) Key products of the experiment […]

Principle Determine the current strength flowing through a semi-conducting diode. Determine the collector current with the collector voltage for various values of the base current intensity. Benefits Fast and easy experimenting Get to know the behaviour of several types of semiconductors Detailed experiment guide with extensive explanations and step-by-step instructions Measure voltage and current simultaneously […]

PrincipleThe current-voltage characteristic of a semiconducting diode is measured. The collector current in dependency on the emitter-collector voltage is measured for different values of base current strength through a NPN transistor. Benefits Fast and easy experimenting Get to know the behaviour of several types of semiconductors Simplified implementation: all pre-settings already prepared Data logging reveals instantaneous […]

Principle The current-voltage characteristics of a solar cell are measured at different light intensities, the distance between the light source and the solar cell being varied. The dependence of no-load voltage and short-circuit current on temperature is determined. Benefits Set-up allows quantitative measurement which also takes light intensity into account Set-up allows to avoid but […]

Principle Kirchhoff’s laws are verified by measuring current, voltage and resistance in series and parallel circuits. In addition, the Wheatstone bridge circuit is used to determine unknown resistances more precisely. Benefits Setup to measure both Kirchhoff’s laws and to determine unknown resistances Components can also be used for other basic and advanced electricity experiments Tasks […]

Principle The Wheatstone bridge circuit is used to determine unknown resistances. The total resistance of resistors connected in parallel and in series is measured. Benefits Highly precise and reproducible measurements possible Many different measurement variations possible Also suitable for measurement of low resistances Tasks Determination of unknown resistances. Determination of the total resistance of resistors […]

Principle The resistances of various DC conductors are determined by recording the current / voltage characteristic. The resistivity of metal rods and the contact resistance of connecting cords are calculated. Benefits Measurement at two different metals possible Conductivity rods can be used both for electrical and thermal conductivity experiments Measurement amplifier can be used for […]

PrincipleThe electric constant is determined by measuring the charge of a plate capacitor to which a voltage is applied. The dielectric constant is determined in the same way, with plastic or glass filling the space between the plates. Benefits Supplies non-hazardous high voltage Easy experimental set-up due to clear and compact design Clever investment: The […]

PrincipleMetal spheres with different radii and a spherical capacitor are charged by means of a variable voltage. The induced charges are determined with a measuring amplifier. The corresponding capacitances are deduced from voltage and charge values. Benefits Supplies non-hazardous high voltage Several conductive spheres included Clever investment: The included universal measuring amplifier can also be […]

Principle A capacitor is charged by way of a resistor. The current is measured as a function of time and the effects of capacitance, resistance and the voltage applied are determined. Benefits Simple and very clear set-up: only few components required Cost savings: Xpert-Link provides all subsidiary functions (power supply, switch, trigger) Extra experiment included: […]

Principle A capacitor is charged by way of a resistor. The current is measured as a function of time and the effects of capacitance, resistance and the voltage applied are determined. Benefits Simple and very clear set-up: only few components required Further experiments in electricity and electronics can be performed with the equipment Tasks To […]

Principle With electron spin resonance (ESR) spectroscopy compounds having unpaired electrons can be studied. The physical background of ESR is similar to that of nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR), but with this technique electron spins are excited instead of spins of atomic nuclei. The g-factor of a DPPH (Diphenylpikrylhydrazyl) specimen and the halfwidth of the absorption line […]

Principle Conducting spheres with different diameters are charged electrically. The static potentials and the accompanying electric field intensities are determined by means of an electric field meter with a potential measuring probe, as a function of position and voltage. Benefits Supplies non-hazardous high voltage Loss-less measurement of electric field strength High-sensitive electric field meter also […]

PrincipleA uniform electric field E is produced between the charged plates of a plate capacitor. The strength of the field is determined with the electric field strength meter, as a function of the plate spacing d and the voltage U. The potential ø within the field is measured with a potential measuring probe. Benefits Loss-less measurement of electric field […]

Principle A square wave voltage of low frequency is applied to oscillatory circuits comprising coils and capacitors to produce free, damped oscillations. The values of inductance are calculated from the natural frequencies measured, the capacitance being known. Benefits On-the-fly switching of the numerous induction coils for quick and easy experimenting Intuitive, touch-optimized software that controls […]

Principle In a Newton’s rings apparatus, monochromatic light interferes in the thin film of air between the slightly convex lens and a plane glass plate. The wavelengths are determined from the radii of the interference rings. Benefits the color of soap bubbles is based on it: interference in thin films use interference optics to determine […]

Principle   Faraday’s first law states that the mass of a material separated by electrolysis is proportional to the quantity of electricity which flowed through the solution. The second law states that the electrochemical equivalents are proportional to their equivalent masses (molar mass divided by valency). The experimental setup depicted here can be used to […]

Principle The rotation of the plane of polarisation through a sugar solution measured with a half-shade  polarimeter and the reaction rate constant for the inversion of cane sugar determined. Benefits even transparent fluids can change the properties of light passing them find out how fast one type of sugar changes into another one use optical […]

Principle In the Michelson arrangement interference will occur by the use of 2 mirrors. The wavelength is determined by displacing one mirror using the micrometerscrew. Benefits discover the essence of the Physics Nobel Prize of 1907 lead to experimental findings that only special relativity theory could explain pre setup of the critical components makes for […]

Principle The spectrometer-goniometer is used to determine the angle of deflection that light undergoes when passing a prism. The refractive index of a prism at the specific wavelength of a known spectral line can be determined by observation of the angle of least deflection of light of that spectral line effected by that prism, given […]

Principle The angle of rotation of the polarisation- plane of plane polarised light through a flint glass rod is found to be a linear function of the product of the mean flux-densitiy and the length of the optical medium. The factor of proportionally, called Verdet’s constant, is investigated as a function of the wavelength and […]

Principle Linear polarised light passes through a polarisation filter. Transmitted light intensity is determined as a function of the angular position of the polarisation filter. Benefits the principle that Polaroid glasses work on introductory yet quantitative experiment to polarization straightforward simple setup Tasks The plane of polarisation of a linear polarised laser beam is to […]

Principle Monochromatic light falls on a mica plate perpendicular to its optic axis. At the appropriate plate thickness (lambda/4, or quarter-wave plate) there is a 90° phase shift between the ordinary and the extraordinary ray when the light emerges from the crystal. The polarisation of the emergent light is investigated at different angles between the […]

Principle Laue diagrams are produced when monocrystals are irradiated with polychromatic X-rays. This method is primarily used for the determination of crystal symmetries and the orientation of crystals. When a LiF monocrystal is irradiated with polychromatic X-rays, a characteristic diffraction pattern results. This pattern is photographed and then evaluated. Tasks The Laue diffraction of an […]

Principle The spectra of the X-rays that are reflected with various different orientations by NaCl monocrystals are analysed. The associated interplanar spacings are determined based on the Bragg angles of the characteristic lines. Tasks Determine the intensity of the X-rays that are reflected by the NaCl monocrystals with the orientations [100], [110] and [111] as […]

PrincipleWith the aid of two mirrors in a Michelson arrangement, light is brought to interference. Due to the magnetostrictive effect, one of the mirrors is shifted by variation in the magnetic field applied to a sample and the change in the interference pattern is observed. Benefits See that magnetic fields can change the geometry of […]

Principle Two mirrors are assembled to form a Fabry-Perot interferometer. Using them, the multibeam interference ofa laser’s light beam is investigated.On moving one of the mirrors, thechange in the intensity distributionof the interfeence pattern is studied. This is a qualitative experiment,to study the shape of different lasermodes and compare it with some photosgiven in this […]

Principle A Mach-Zehnder-interferometer is illuminated with a laser beam. Circular interference fringes appear on the screens behind the interferometer. If polarisation filters with opposite polarisation planes are placed in the two interferometer paths the interference patterns disappear. Placing another polariser before one of the screens causes the pattern to reappear. Electromagnetic radiation can be described […]

Principle An aperture consisting of a single slit and a complementary strip (wire) is illuminated with a laser beam. The corresponding diffraction patterns are measured according to position and intensity with a photocell which can be shifted. Benefits surprisingly a slit and a wire show basically the same diffraction pattern measurements prove a theorem that […]

Principle Multiple slits which all have the same width and the same distance among each other, as well as transmission grids with different grid constants, are submitted to laser light. The corresponding diffraction patterns are measured according to their position and intensity, by means of a photo diode which can be shifted. Benefits understand what […]

Principle Monochromatic light is incident on a slit or an edge. The intensity distribution of the diffraction pattern is determined. Benefits learn that the transition region from light to shadow is not a sharp line, but a diffraction pattern you can make use of diffraction patterns to determine properties of the objects causing them simple […]

Principle With the aid of two mirrors in a Michelson arrangement, light is brought to interference. While moving one of the mirrors, the alterationin the interference pattern is observed and the wave length of the laser light determined. Benefits Learn about the measurement principle with which gravitational waves can be observed Assemble your own interferometer using invidual optical components […]

Principle A measurement cuvette set in the beam path of a Michelson interferometer can be evacuated or filled with CO2. The refraction indexes of air or CO2 are determined through the assessed modification of the interference pattern. Benefits see that even two transparent gases can have different optical properties a Michelson interferometer is used to measure subtle differences […]

Principle The wavelengths and the corresponding lengths of coherence of the green spectral lines of an extreme high pressure Hg vapour lamp are determined by means of a Michelson interferometer. Different double slit combinations are illuminated to verify the coherence conditions of non punctual light sources. An illuminated auxiliary adjustable slit acts as a non […]

Principle A zone plate is illuminated with parallel laser light. The focal points of several orders of the zone plate are projected on a ground glass screen. Benefits find out that optical lenses can be completely different from what you are used to interference is used to produce effects commonly achieved with diffraction the use […]

PrincipleThe focal lengths of unknown lenses are determined by measuring the distances of image and object and by Bessel’s method. Simple optical instruments are then constructed with these lenses. Tasks To determine the focal length of two unknown convex lenses by measuring the distances of image and object. To determine the focal length of a […]

Principle The beam of a laser diode is treated in a way that it can be coupled into a monomode fibre. The problems related to coupling the beam into the fibre are evaluated and verified. In consequence a low frequency signal is transmitted through the fibre. The numerical aperture of the fibre is recorded. The […]

Principle Plane-polarized light is reflected at a glass surface. Both the rotation of the plane of polarization and the intensity of the reflected light are to be determined and compared with Fresnel’s formulare for reflection. Benefits see that reflection at a glass surface changes some properties of light find out that at special angles, light […]

Principle By dividing up the wave-front of a beam of light at the Fresnel mirror and the Fresnel biprism, interference is produced. The wavelength is determined from the interference patterns. Benefits observe that light plus light can result in darkness understand how to make use of the interference effect a laser as lightsource allows clear […]

Principle The diffracted light from a periodic line grating is observed with a goniometer. The diffraction angles of spectral lines in different orders of diffraction are measured for the spectral lines from a Hg spectral lamp. By using gratings with different grating constants the angular spectral dispersion in dependence on grating constant is determined. The […]

Principle Visible light impinges on a diffusely reflecting surface. The luminance of this surface is determined as a function of the angle of observation. Benefits study the light intensity that a sheet of paper is diffusely reflecting learn about the different physical units associated with light very versatile optical base plate Tasks The luminous flux […]

Principle The luminous intensity emitted by a punctual source is determined as a function of distance. Benefits find out how exactly it becomes darker with increasing distance from a lightsource get results fast and reproducible with a data-logging system analize results easily and compare them to theory using a computer Tasks The luminous intensity emitted […]

Principle The intensity of the light is modulated and the phase relationship of the transmitter and receiver signal compared. The velocity of light is calculated from the relationship between the changes in the phase and the light path. Benefits determine yourself what the “speed of light” actually is find out how the velocity of light […]

Principle The solar ray collector is illuminated with a halogen lamp of known light intensity. The heat energy absorbed by the collector can be calculated from the volume flow and the difference in the water temperatures at the inlet and outlet of the absorber, if the inlet temperature stays almost constant by releasing energy to […]

Principle The volume expansion of liquids and the linear expansion of various materials is determined as a function of temperature. Benefits With detailed experiment guide Two experiments in one Tasks To determine the volume expansion of ethyl acetate (C4H8O2), methylated spirit, olive oil, glycerol and water as a function of temperature, using the pycnometer. To determine […]

Principle A mass oscillates on a volume of gas in a precision glass tube. The oscillationis maintained by leading escaping gas back into the system. The adiabatic coefficient of various gases is determined from the periodic time of the oscillation. Benefits Suitable for many different gases Compact, easily transportable setup Tasks Determine the adiabatic coefficient […]

Principle A substance which is gaseous under normal conditions is enclosed in a variable volume and the variation of pressure with the volume is recorded at different temperatures. The critical point is determined graphically from a plot of the isotherms. Benefits Visualization of the critical point Tasks Measure a number of p-V isotherms of ethane. […]

Principle Heat is added to a gas in a glass vessel by an electric heater which is switched on briefly. The temperature increase results in a pressure increase, which is measured with a manometer. Under isobaric conditions a temperature increase results in a volume dilatation, which can be read from a gas syringe. The molar […]

Principle The vapour pressure of water in the range of 40 °C to 85 °C is investigated. It is shown that the Clausius-Clapeyron equation describes the relation between temperature and pressure in an adequate manner. An average value for the heat of vaporisation of water is determined. Benefits Compact, easily transportable setup For both demonstration […]

Principle Thermal radiation can be measured at all surfaces as long as their temperature differs from that of the surrounding. Therefore it applies that the hotter an object is, the more radiation it emits. Also the surface colour influences the behaviour: dark surfaces emit more thermal radiation than light ones. An example for application of […]

Principle Pressures and temperatures in the circulation of the heat electrical compression heat pump are measured as a function of time when it is operated as a water-water heat pump. The energy taken up and released is calculated from the heating and cooling of the two water baths. When it is operated as an air-water […]

Principle In a semi-conductor thermogenerator, the no-load voltage and the short-circuit current are measured as a function of the temperature difference. The internal resistance, the Seebeck coefficient and the efficiency are determined. Benefits Open design allows to fully understand function and applications Individual instruments for distinct functions (no “black box”) Key products of the experiment […]

Principle The thermal conductivity of copper and aluminium is determined in a constant temperature gradient from the calorimetrically measured heat flow. The electrical conductivity of copper and aluminium is determined and the Wiedmann-Franz law is tested. Benefits Measurement of electrical and thermal conductivity in one set-up Compact, easily transportable setup Tasks Determine the heat capacity […]

Principle The (cooling capacity) heating capacity and efficiency rating of a Peltier heat pump are determined under different operating conditions. Benefits Open design allows to fully understand function and applications Individual instruments for distinct functions (no “black box”) Key products of the experiment setup can also be used for investigating the Seebeck effect Tasks To determine the […]

Principle According of Stefan-Boltzmann’s law, the energy emitted by a black body per unit area and unit time is proportional to the power “four” of the absolute temperature of the body. Stefan-Boltzmann’s law is also valid for a so-called “grey” body whose surface shows a wavelength independent absorption-coefficient of less than one. In the experiment, […]

Principle When the air pressure above a watersurface is reduced, the water begins to boil at a certain temperature. The temperature of the water is hereby reduced and further evacuation can finally bring it to 0 °C and even lower. Benefits Data logging via tablet possible. For both demonstration and student experiments Tasks Determine the […]

Principle In this experiment, a metal test body is rotated and heated by the friction due to a tensed band of synthetic material.The mechanical equivalent of heat for problem 1 is determined from the defined mechanical work and from the thermal energy increase deduced from the increase of temperature. Assuming the equivalence of mechanical work […]

Principle Heated specimens are placed in a calorimeter filled with water at low temperature. The heat capacity of the specimen is determined from the rise in the temperature of the water. Benefits Compact, easily transportable setup For both demonstration and student experiments Tasks To determine the heat capacity of the calorimeter by filling it with […]

Principle Heated specimens are placed in a calorimeter filled with water at low temperature. The heat capacity of the specimen is determined from the rise in the temperature of the water. Benefits Flexible experimenting thanks to wireless data transmission Data acquisition with tablets possible Simplified implementation: all pre-settings already prepared Tasks To determine the specific […]

Principle A stream of gas is fed to a throttling point, where the gas (CO2 or N2) undergoes adiabatic expansion. The differences in temperature established between the two sides of the throttle point are measured at various pressures and the Joule-Thomson coefficients of the gases in question are calculated. Benefits For both demonstration and student experiments With […]

Principle Heat is added to a gas in a glass vessel by an electric heater which is switched on briefly. The temperature increase results in a pressure increase, which is measured with a manometer. Under isobaric conditions a temperature increase results in a volume dilatation, which can be read from a gas syringe. The molar […]

Principle The high-pressure steam apparatus makes it possible to measure steam pressure in a temperature range of 100-250 °C. This allows for investigations to be performed on real gases and vapours. Typical equilibrium states between gas and liquid phases can be set up. For this purpose, water is heated in a closed pressure chamber at […]

Principle By means of the model apparatus for kinetic theory of gases the motion of gas molecules is simulated and the velocities determined by registration of the throw distance of the glass balls. This velocity distribution is compared to the theoretical Maxwell- Boltzmann equation. Benefits For both demonstration and student experiments Unique experiment to quantitatively […]

Principle The state of a gas is determined by temperature, pressure and amount of substance. For the limiting case of ideal gases, these state variables are linked via the general equation of state. For a change of state under isochoric conditions this equation becomes Amontons’ law. In this experiment it is investigated whether Amontons’ law […]

Principle Cork dust in a glass tube is set into tiniest motion by a sound wave. If the frequency of the sound wave matches the natural frequency of the volume in the glass tube, a standing wave will form. The cork dust then assembles in visible patterns that show the nodes of pressure and motion […]

Principle A tensioned metal string is made to vibrate. The vibrations of the string are optically scanned, the vibration process observed on the oscilloscope and the dependence of the frequency on the string tension and string length and the density of the material are investigated. Benefits Investigation of the dependency of the vibration frequencies of […]

Principle A quadrangular rubber rope is inserted through the demonstration motor and a linear polarised fixed wave is generated. With the help of a stroboscope, the frequency and the wave length are determined. Then the phase velocity of ropewaves with a fixed tensile stress is ascertained. Subsequently, the mathematical relationship between the phase velocity of […]

Principle The velocity of sound in acrylics shall be determined by time of flight reflection technique with an ultrasonic echoscope. The measurements are done by reflection method, on three cylinders of different length. Two measurement series are carried out with ultrasonic probes of different frequencies. Benefits Introductory experiment for echoscopy applications Experiment can be easily […]

Principle The fundamental principles concerning the generation of ultrasonic B-scan images (brightness representation of the reflection amplitudes) are demonstrated with the aid of a simple test ob-ject. The experiment is executed with an ultrasonic echoscope in the pulse-echo-mode and the object is scanned manually. Then, the image quality and the most important image defects will […]

Principle An ultrasonic wave transmitted in a sample will be reflected at discontinuities (defects, cracks). From the relationship between the time of flight of the reflected wave and the sound velocity, the distance between ultrasonic transducer and defects (reflector) can be calculated. Position and size of these defects can be determined by measuring in different […]

Principle Acoustic cavity resonators possess a characteristic frequency which is determined by their geometrical form. In this case the resonator is excited to vibrations in its resonance frequency by background noise. Benefits Measure the resonance frequencies without additional excitation by using only the ambient noise Immediate observation of both, the sound wave signal and the […]

Principle If an emitter of sound or a detector is set into motion relative to the medium of propagation, the frequency of the waves that are emitted or detected is shifted due to the Doppler effect. Benefits Easy frequency setting thanks to digital function generator Intuitive measuring instrument Results well reproducible because of the motor-driven […]

Principle The velocity of sound in air is determined by measurement of sound travel times across known distances. Benefits Perfect as demonstration and student experiment Easy setup and fast procedure Easy entry into the topic of error calculation possible Tasks Determine the sound velocity in air for different distances between sound source and microphone. What […]

PrincipleThe velocity of sound in air is determined by measurements of sound travel times. Benefits Simple set-up and procedure Easy entry into the topic of error calculation possible Simplified implementation: all pre-settings already prepared Tasks Determine the speed of sound in air. What you can learn about Propagation of sound waves Velocity of sound Sound […]

Principle A set of circular water waves is generated simultaneously and the resulting interference is observed. By increasing the number of interfering circular waves, Huygens’ Principle can be verified. With the aid of plane water waves, diffraction phenomena of waves at different obstacles (slit, edge, double-slit etc.) are investigated. In a further experiment, the principle of […]

PrincipleThe periodicity of connected stationary oscillators is demonstrated on the example of a continuous, harmonic transverse wave generated by a wave machine. The number of oscillations carried out by different oscillators within a certain time is determined and the velocity of propagation is measured. A relation between frequency, wavelength and phase velocity is established. The […]

PrincipleSquare and round metal plates are brought to vibrate through acoustic stimulations by a loudspeaker. When the driving frequency corresponds to a given Eigen-frequency (natural vibration mode) of the plate, the nodal lines are made visible with sand. The sand is expelled from the vibrating regions of the plate and gathers in the lines because […]

Principle Bars of various materials will be exciting into torsional vibration. The relationship between the vibration period and the geometrical dimensions of the bars will be derived and the specific shear modulus for the material determined. Benefits The use of eight different rods out of different material and with several diameters increase the understanding of […]

Principle If an oscillating system is allowed to oscillate freely, we can observe that the decrement of successive maximum amplitudes strongly depends on the damping value. If the oscillating system is caused to oscillate by an external torsional oscillation, we can observe that the amplitude in a stationary state is a function of the frequency […]

Principle If an oscillating system is allowed to swing freely it is observed that the decrease of successive maximum amplitudes is highly dependent on the damping. If the oscillating system is stimulated to swing by an external periodic torque, we observe that in the steady state the amplitude is a function of the frequency and […]

Principle The spring constant D is determined for different experimental set-ups from the oscillation period and the suspended mass. Tasks Determination of the spring constant D for different springs. Determination of the spring constant for springs linked in parallel. Determination of the spring constant for springs linked in series. Benefits Large and sturdy set-up suitable for demonstration and lab […]

Principle Two identical gravity pendula with a particular characteristic frequency are coupled via a “soft” spiral spring. The amplitudes of both pendula are recorded as a function of time. The coupling factors are determined by way of different methods. Then, the local points of the oscillation are integrated into the video. Benefits Large and sturdy […]

Principle Two equal gravity pendula with a particular characteristic frequency are coupled by a “soft” spiral spring. The amplitudes of both pendula are recorded as a function of time for various vibrational modes and different coupling factors. The coupling factors are determined by different methods. Benefits Large and sturdy set-up suitable for demonstration and lab […]

Principle Investigate the oscillation behaviour of a pendulum (rod pendulum) by varying the magnitude of the components of the acceleration of gravity which are decisive for the oscillation period. The pendulum that is to be used is constructed in such a manner that its oscillation plane can be progressively rotated from a vertical orientation to […]

Principle By means of a reversible pendulum, terrestrial gravitational acceleration g may be determined from the period of oscillation of a physical pendulum, knowing neither the mass nor the moment of inertia of the latter. Benefits Quick and easy set-up Determine the gravitational constant g immediately without knowledge of mass or moment of inertia Automatically […]

Principle A mass, considered as of point form, suspended on a thread and subjected to the force of gravity, is deflected from its position of rest. The period of the oscillation thus produced is measured as a function of the thread length and the angle of deflection. Benefits Quick and easy set-up Automatically measure the […]

Principle According to Newton’s 2nd law of motion for a mass point, the relationship between mass, acceleration and force are investigated. Tasks The distance-time law, the velocity time law and the relationship between mass, acceleration and force are determined. The conservation of energy can be investigated. Benefits Accurate results due to measurements with low friction: […]

PrincipleThe cohesive forces in a liquid generate tension on its surface, the so-called surface tension. A metal ring that is plunged into a liquid is withdrawn from the liquid. At a certain tensile force, the liquid film will be disrupted from the ring. Based on the tensile force and ring diameter, the surface tension of […]

Principle The force is measured on a ring shortly before a liquid film tears using a torsion meter. The surface tension is calculated from the diameter of the ring and the tear-off force. Benefits High sensitivity measurement possible thanks to ring method Analogue set-up that can also be used as a demo experiment in the lecture […]

Principle Due to internal friction among their particles, liquids and gases have different viscosities. The viscosity, a function of the substance’s structure and its temperature, can be experimentally determined, for example, by measuring the rate of fall of a ball in a tube filled with the liquid to be investigated. Benefits Viscosity measurement for two […]

PrincipleThe viscosity of liquids can be determined with a rotation viscometer, in which a motor with variable rotation speed drives a cylinder immersed in the liquid to be investigated with a spiral spring. The viscosity of the liquid generates a moment of rotation at the cylinder which can be measured with the aid of the […]

Principle The density of water and glycerol is determined as a function of temperature using the Mohr balance. Benefits Mohr density balance enables high-precision measurements Interdisciplinary use also in applied sciences or physical chemistry Tasks The density of water and glycerol is measured in 1 to 2 °C steps over a temperature range from 0 […]

Principle A disc, which can unroll with its axis on two cords, moves in the gravitational field. Potential energy, energy of translation and energy of rotation are converted into one another and are determined as a function of time. Benefits High and sturdy set-up Expressive demonstration of energy conversion Convert potential energy in energy of […]

Principle The aim of this experiment is to study the relationship between the ultrasonic Doppler effect and the flow velocity or the Doppler angle. Benefits Ideal for teaching the basics of the Doppler effect in fluids Experiment setup can be upgraded to perform experiments like flow mechanics and Doppler sonography Compact, easy to understand experiment […]

Principle The ultrasonic Doppler effect is used for studying the laws of steadily and laminarly flowing liquids in a tube circuit, which form the basis of numerous technical applications. The experiment focuses particularly on the relationship between the flow velocity and the cross-sectional tube area (continuity condition) as well as on the relationship between the […]

Principle A vessel containing liquid is rotated about an axis. The liquid surface forms a paraboloid of rotation, the parameters of which will be determined as a function of the angular velocity. Benefits Didactical unique Interdisciplinary use also in applied sciences or physical chemistry Tasks On the rotating liquid surface, the following are determined: the […]

Principle By means of a reversible pendulum, terrestrial gravitational acceleration g may be determined from the period of oscillation of a physical pendulum, knowing neither the mass nor the moment of inertia of the latter. Benefits Quick and easy set-up Determine the gravitational constant g immediately without knowledge of mass or moment of inertia Automatically […]

Principle Two small lead spheres are positioned on a beam, which is freely suspended on a thin metal wire. At the beginning the large lead spheres are positioned symmetrically opposite to the small spheres in that way that the attractive forces are eliminated. There after, the large spheres are swung so that they are close […]

Principle Various bodies perform torsional vibrations about axes through their centres of gravity. The vibration period is measured and the moment of inertia determined from this. Benefits Selection of materials allows demonstrating all aspects of moments of inertia in one experiment Clear and easy set-up Tasks The following will be determined: The angular restoring moment […]

PrincipleThe validity of Hooke’s law is determined for two helical springs with different spring constants. The elongation of the helical spring, which depends on the deforming force, is studied by means of the weights of masses. For comparison, a rubber band, for which no proportionality exists between the exerted force and the resulting elongation, is […]

Principle The relationship between torque and angle of rotation is determined when metal bars are twisted. The hysteresis curve is recorded. Benefits Beyond Hooke’s law Hysteresis – mostly known from the field of magnetism – can be experienced in mechanics Learn the meaning of the words stress, relaxation and equilibrium in a physics context Various […]

Principle A flat bar is supported at two points. It is bent by the action of a force acting at its centre. The modulus of elasticity is determined from the bending and the geometric data of the bar. Benefits Find out the parameters that give a bar stability Measure the difference of elasticity in various […]

Principle Coplanar forces (weight, spring balance) act on the moments disc on either side of the pivot. In equilibrium, the moments are determined as a function of the magnitude and direction of the forces and of the reference point. Benefits Understand the relation and the difference between moments and force. Smart designed equipment that makes […]

Principle The moment of inertia of a solid body depends on its mass distribution and the axis of rotation. Steiner’s theorem elucidates this relationship. Benefits Angular oscillation apparaturs includes five different body shapes for in-depth experimenting High-precision movement sensor Very robust and durable setup Tasks The moments of inertia of different bodies are determined by […]

Principle If the axis of rotation of the force-free gyroscope is displaced slightly, a nutation is produced. The relationship between precession frequency or nutation frequency and gyro-frequency is examined for different moments of inertia. Additional weights are applied to a gyroscope mounted on gimbals, so causing a precession. Benefits Unique set-up of the Magnus-type gyroscope […]

Principle A wheel, which can unroll around its axis on two cords, moves a gravitational field. This process is filmed with a video camera. The potential energy, kinetic energy, and rotational energy are converted into one another and determined as a function of time with the aid of the “measure Dynamics” software. Benefits High and […]

Principle The momentum of inertia of the gyroscope is investigated by measuring the angular acceleration caused by torques of different known values. In this experiment, two of the axes of the gyroscope are fixed. The relationship between the precession frequency and the gyro-frequency of the gyroscope with 3 free axes is examined for torques of […]

Principle A body with variable mass moves on a circular path with adjustable radius and variable angular velocity. The centrifugal force of the body will be measured as a function of these parameters. Benefits Easy to read measures Several loadable weights enable variable set-up Freely set various steady rotational velocities Tasks Determination of the centrifugal […]

Principle A moment acts on a body which can be rotated about a bearing without friction. The moment of inertia is determined from the angular acceleration. Benefits Long runtime Nearly friction-less movement due to precision bearing and precision pulley Steady set-up prevents interferences Tasks From the angular acceleration, the moment of inertia is determined as […]

Principle If a constant torque is applied to a body that rotates without friction around a fixed axis, the changing angle of rotation increases proportionally to the square of the time and the angular velocity proportional to the time. Benefits Long runtime Nearly friction-less movement due to precision bearing Steady set-up prevents interferences Data logging […]

Principle The volocities of two gliders, moving without friction on a demonstration track, are measured before and after collision, for both elastic and inelastic collision. Tasks Elastic collision The impulses of the two gliders as well as their sum after the collision. For comparison the mean value of the impulses of the first glider is […]

Principle A classic method of determining the velocity of a projectile is to shoot it into a resting mass hung as a pendulum. The projectile remains in the pendulum and swings with it. This is an inelastic collision in which the momentum remains unchanged. The velocity of the pendulum’s mass (including the projectile’s mass) at […]

Principle A steel sphere is launched by a ballistic unit and the resulting trajectory is filmed with the aid of a video camera. The “measure Dynamics” software is used to demonstrate the dependence of the trajectory on the launching angle and on the initial velocity, and to determine the range and height of the trajectory. In […]

Principle A steel ball is fired by a spring at different velocities and at different angles to the horizontal. The relationships between the range, the height of projection, the angle of inclination and the firing velocity are determined. Benefits Learn a classic method to determine a projectile’s velocity See how to utilize conservation laws for […]

Principle The aim of this experiment is to film a high-speed video of a sphere falling from the height of fall h. The “measure Dynamics” software is used for the graphical representation of the distance as a function of time t and also as a function of the square of time t^2 as well as the graphical representation of […]

PrincipleA sphere falls freely over certain distances. The falling time is measured and evaluated from diagrams. The acceleration due to gravity can be determined. Benefits Gravitation scrutinized Find out how the velocity of a falling object increases Didactical demonstration of the falling distances Visualise the squared distance-time law Steady set-up All crucial parts directly engineered […]

Principle The fall times t are measured for different heights of fall h. h is represented as the function of t or t², so the distance-time law of the free fall results as h = 1/2 · g · t². Then the measured values are taken to determine the acceleration due to gravity g. Benefits […]

Principle A mass, which is connected to a cart via a silk thread, drops to the floor. The resulting motion of the cart will be recorded by way of a video camera and evaluated with the “measure Dynamics” software. The relationship between distance and time, velocity and time, and the relationship between mass, acceleration, and force […]

Principle The distance-time law, the velocity time law, and the relationship between mass, acceleration and force are determined with the aid of the demonstration track rail for uniformly accelerated motion in a straight line. Tasks Determination of: Distance travelled as a function of time Velocity as a function of time Acceleration as a function of […]

Principle Caliper gauges, micrometers and spherometers are used for the accurate measurement of lengths, thicknesses, diameters and curvatures. Measuring procedures, accuracy of measurement and reading accuracy are demonstrated. Benefits Foundation of every practical sciences lab course Aquire the skills to measure basic mechanical variables Realise the limits of measuring accuracy Combine different measurements to determine […]